Jawaharlal Nehru

JAWAHARLAL NEHRU 1951-1964

Challenges before Nehru- to achieve massive reconstruction of polity and economy, advancement towards basic objectives of democracy, civil liberties, secularism, a scientific and international outlook, planning with socialism, to alleviate poverty and unemployment, land reforms, consolidation of the nation, solutions of language and tribal problem, form a new electoral policy and independent foreign policy
How he proceeded?

• 1951-1952 first general election held on basis of universal adult franchise(21 or + age). 
• Some critics said a backward country like India can only suited to benevolent dictatorship.
• Election held according to directive principles and independent election commission as also made.
• Sukumar Sen was appointed as first chief election commissioner.
• People’s response to new political order was tremendous.
• Establishment of democratic institution
• Press having free play even when it criticized government severely.
• Even court was independent when it turned down legislation of agrarian reform.
• Both ruling and opposition parties played its role well in parliament.
• Nehru put states and centre at cordial terms hence he did not force states to effect land reform just to keep federalism strong.(only president rule in Kerala in 1959 was exception)
• But this tendency somehow harmed to the subjects of health, education, agricultural in states.
• Although Nehru at the same time made centre strong and even it was easy to do this as ruling part was same in both centre and states.
• Nehru kept state’s supremacy over military as he was worried with its coup in Pakistan France and Germany.(hence low expenditure on it)
• Nehru was critic of bureaucracy and ics but gradually he understood the Patel and accepted the administration system.
• This was also a time when evil of corruption started in India.
• His major achievement in field of science. First national science laboratory and national physical laboratory was laid on in 1947.
• In 1952 first of five institute of technology was set up on patterned of Massachusetts IT
• India was country of the world to recognize importance of nuclear energy in constructing measures hence set up a ATOMIC ENERGY COMMISSION in 1948with HOMI J. BHABHA. Latter on separate deptt. Was laid on.
• Asia’s first nuclear reactor was set up in trombay (Bombay)
• In 1962 space research started by setting up INDIAN NATIONAL COMMITTEE FOR SPACE RESEARCH AND ROCKET LAUNCHING FACILITY AT THUMBA.
• Krishna menon as defence min. initiated defence research.
• Under the article 36 of DPSP welfare policy is promoted on socialistic pattern of society.
• This phrase was officially accepted by congress session at avadi and latter on adopted in the objective of third five year plan.Land reforms, planned economy development, rapid expansion of public sector, labor legislation, right to form trade union , go on strike, security of employment, provision of health insurance, distribution of wealth through progressive taxes, expansion of education etc.
• Anti untouchability law in 1955, reservation in education and employment for sc/st’s.
• 1951 Hindu code bill in favor of women demands for right. However due to protest from jansangh and Hindu communal sectors bill was passed in four separate parts in the second term of Nehru.
• Bill introduced monogamy, right of divorce to both men and women, raised the age of consent and marriage and gave right to maintenance and to inherit family property.
• But a uniform civil code could not be enacted (shahbano case)
• In 1951 literacy was only 16.6%(6% in rural).Vast efforts were done b government that increased enrollment in primary secondary education in both girls and boys. By 1964 total no of universities were increased from 18 to 54.But behind the success story major weakness was decline in educational standardsTarget of free and compulsory education was shifted from 1961 to 1966 and then to distant future.
• For rural uplift community development and panchayati raj institution program was started in 1952 and 1959.(much cooperated by U.S. during cold war)
• Despite of good results it was suffered with bureaucracy.(hence balwant rai committee in 1957)On the recommendation from 1959 panchayati raj was adopted as self governance in all over country trough three level system.But cooperative movement and these programs could not succeed according to expectation as it ignored the class division of Indian society so major benefits were reached to only upper class.

FOREIGN POLICY OF NEHRU

• Nehru realized that India should speak in her own voice on current situations.
• Hence NAM came in row. At the same time India neither joined Bagdad pact, manila treaty, SEATO, CENTO WHICH JOINED THE COUNTRIES OF WEST AND EAST ASIA TO THE WESTERN power BLOC.
• But NAM was not immoral neutrality it was a freedom to decide what was right or wrong then take stand in favour of right.
• We helped Indonesia from Dutch colonies in 1948 then participated in Afro-Asian conference.In 1961 Belgrade conference it supported disarmament and peace
• The major aim of our policy was to promote interest of Indian economy hence we maintained good relation with both U.S. (technology in green revolution) and SOVIET UNION (largest arm exporter).
• Active membership in various UN body IMF WORLD BANK etc and in peacekeeping force and in commonwealth institution.

Reforms in British Administration

THE WAR OF INDEPENDENCE AND AFTER

The  outbreak of 1857, called by Dr. Pattabhi Sitaramayya as the First War of Independence, was a shock to  the  British  government and  its  bureaucracy. - Economic exploitation, social  deprivation, and political unrest made 1857 outburst inevitable. The British rulers had to revise their policy of conquest and annexations and to adopt  a cautious and calculated view of association and cooperation. The Act of 1858 ended the Company rule and the system of Double Government  by Board of Control in  England  and the Court of Directors of  the company  introduced by the Pitt's India Act, 1784. Indian Administration  came  directly under the-Crown. The Act created the office of the Secretary of State who was a cabinet minister in the British cabinet. His salary and establishment was  paid from the Indian revenue. He was assisted by a council of fifteen members to make him familiar with Indian affairs. With the end of the East India Company, British Parliament lost much interest in Indian affairs and the Secretary of State for India became the defacto  government of  India. He  had overriding powers over. the  Council in  deliberations, appointments and the supremacy  of Home government over the Government of India as firmly established. The enlightened Indian opinion always criticised the constitutien and functioning of this council. The various changes introduced by the Act of 1858 were formally announced by a proclamation of Queen Victoria. The Queen felt that such a document should, lead to feeling of generosity, benevolence and religious toleration. It assured the, native  princes  their  rights,  dignity and  honour. This would specify them  and would make them act as a reactionary block against any progressive force raising its head against the British rule.

THE INDIAN COUNCILS ACTS

The Indian Councils Act 1861

The advance made by'the Indian Councils Act 1861 over the 1858 Act was mainly in the inclusion of a number of non-official members in the Executive Council of the Governor-General. The Governor General's executive council consisted of five members. And for the purpose of legislation, the council was reinforced by six to twelve nominated members for a two-year  term. Half of these were to be non- officials, both  European  and Indian not in the service of the Crown. There were similar councils at the provinces.
The powers of the Governor-General increased more in the field of legislation. The Council was presided over by the Governor-General. His prior approval was necessary to introduce measures affecting public finance, religion, discipline and maintenance of military and  naval forces and relations of the Government with foreign princes and States. His consent was nec9sary for any Act passed by the legislature and his Ordirances had the validity of an Act. The idea was that the legislature  should  conduct  its  business like a 'Committee'  or  a 'Commission', their  publicity  being limited  to  official  reports on  . The aim of  the Act, according to Sir Charles Wood, Secretary of State for  f ndia, was to prevent the legislature from interfering with the functions of the executive government. In the official despatch he avoided the word 'legislative council' and there was no mention of session in the  rules of business. The Executive government became too  strong  as  legislature  had  power without  control,  association  without representation. The belief of the British  rulers was that the most members of a dominant class. The earlier non-official members were mostly ruling princes, or their diwans or big landlords. Thuy had little interest or initiative in  its  working. And their representation was hardly 'public'.  European  interests settled in India differed from the  purely  imperial interests rooted in  Britain. The  practice  of private correspondence between  the Secretary of State and the Viceroy bypassed the majority of the  council. Also as the  functions of the council were merely legislative, it was a step backward with the provisions of the 1853 Act. It looks as if that the British Statesmen and thinkers, both conservative and liberals, felt sincerely  (though  wrongly)  that  Parliamentary form  of government  was unsuitable for India. Even John Stuart Mill, the  liberal, believed that India was not in a sufficiently advanced state to aspire for a representative government.

The Indian Councils Act 1892
The Indian Councils Act 1861 naturally could not satisfy the progressive public opinion in  India. in its very first  session  the  Indian National  Congress passed resolution  to make these councils broad based,  elective and with powers, over budget and powers to interpellate the Executive. To move too fast is dangerous, but to lag behind is more dangerous still (Lord Ripon). The liberal Governor-Generals and Viceroys advocated the need for making  councils more  popular. Also the Government of India felt that it would strengthen its position vis-a-vis the British government with the help of elected Indian members. European business interests in India also favoured larger elective element and broader functions expected to the councils. Lord Dalhousie's policy of providing for legislation on the basis of petitions from individuals and their associations contributed to the organisation of opinion for reforms. Constitutionalism and consultative  machinery thus moved towards a government based on popular representation.
Lord Dufferin's  Egyptian  experience in the  establishment of elected  provincial  councils was encouraging. He wanted to experiment the same in India. The main recommendations of the Dufferin Committee (1888) were: (i) the  expansion of Presidency councib and enlarging their  functions; (ii) providing representation to important interest; (iii) representation to Muslims in proportion to their population; (iv) reservation of a few seats to be filled by nomination as a safeguard against any inequality in the results of elections. The provincial iouncils would be of two tiers. The first representing hereditary trade, professions, commercial interest. The first directly elected and the second indirectly. The provincial administration would also be divided in two parts - general and  local  and the councils would have larger powers in local matters. As the  British  Statesmen were still influenced by the feeling that 'constitutional  ' principles could not be applied to a conquered country' and that there would be no relaxation of 'bureaucratic despotism', The Indian Councils Act 1892 did not much satisfy local  aspirations. It expanded  the  Executive  Council of the  Governor- General.  Nominations  were to be made by provincial  councils, local  bodies, professional bodies, etc. The members had  now a right to put questions and discuss on  matters of budget.  Though a previous notice was necessary and the question could be disallowed without assigning any reason, this right was more than symbolic. Obviously, official majority was mainstreamed in both the Supreme as well as provincial councils.
The Act  really  was an advance over the  1861 legislation as it gave  rights to the council which way Parliamentary in nature. It was an attempt at a  compromise between the official views of the council as 'pocket  legislature' and the educated Indian view as embryo Parliaments. The right of interpellation without the right to veto carries little meaning and less weight. The extremist element in the National Congress was dominating and the practice of the Act also defeated its purpose of 'giving further opportunities to the non-officials and the  native element in Indian society to tab part in the workof the government'.

The National Movement and Constitutional Reforms

While the British established a regular system of government in India from 1857 to  1947, the slow pace of constitutional experiments  showed uneasy compromises, the British Statesmen were making with the exigencies in the Indian situation. The policy of apparent association, therefore, went had in  hand with the policy of oppression, and constitutional  advances were always barbed  with restrictive conditions so that the core of executive bureaucratic responsibility would  remain untouched.  Such contradictions seem to be inevitable with imperialism  because imperialism itself is incompatible with democratic theory and practices. The contradictions were clearly  exposed in Lord Lytton's repressive  policy,  the Arms  Act, the Vernacular  Press  Act,  holding of Imperial  Darbar during severe famine, abolition of cotton import duty to serve British textile interest. (This was the  first time when the  veto power  was exercised by the Governor-General in
India). The Ilbert Bill controversy (1 883) also was an eye opener to Indians. The Bill was to empower Indian magistrates to try criminal cases of white people which were objected by the whites.  Equally  eye  opening  were the  attempts to keep Indiafis out of higher jobs, especially the Indian Civil  Service. All  these clearly indicated the imperialist belief in white man's  supremacy.
The Indian National  movement organised itself in the Indian National Congress (1 885). Initially influenced by the Western educated upper middle class, it aimed at securing reforms through peaceful and constitutional means. The British rulers also felt  that  this wound remove  misunderstanding  about  the interactions  of the government and wouM save thc empire.  The moderats had faith in the British sense ofjustice and fair play.
Their aim  was gradual  reforms with constitutional means. The  Congress progromrne tossed Mlwecn extremists and liberals till it became a mass movement, in the real sense and &manded nothing short of 'Purna Swaraj'.
 
THE MORLEY MINTO REFORMS 1909

The Main Provisions

The Indian Councils Act (1909) substantially increased the strength of legislative councils - the Imperial and provincial. For the Imperial, the Supreme Council, the number of  additional members was  raised fiom 16 to 60.  For  major provincial councils, the number was raised to 50 and for minor provinces it was fleed to 30. The  additional members were both nominated and elected. The principle of election was council representation. In the  Supreme Legislative  Council, the official majority  was  maintained by in he provincial  councils, the non-officials
formed the majority. The A& definitely expanded the  functions of the legislative councils. These canaerned discussions on' the  budget (The Annual Financial statement), discussion on any matter of general public  interest  and  thirdly the power of asking questions. Tb Act also increased the number of Executive conncillors  in the three major Presidencies - Bombay, Madras and Bengal, Indians were now appointed as members of the Secretary of States' Council (1907) and members of the  Governor-Generals'  Council  (1909).  Some  other  important feature of the Act of 1909 included: right of separate electorate to the Muslims; the Secretary of the state for India was empowered to increase the number of the Executive 43ouncils of Madras and Bombay fiom two to four; two Indians were nominated to  the  Cquncil of the  Secretary  of state for  Indian  affairs;  and empowering Governor-General to nominate one Indian Member to his Executive Council. etc.
Both Lord Morley, the then Secretary of Statc, and Lord Minto, the then Governor General of India,  felt that  it  wes not  desirable to  introduce  a responsible government in India and it would never suit the Indian conditions. 'The safety and welfare of this  country must depend upon the  supremacy  of  the British administration and that Bupremacy can in  no circutllstances be delegated to' any kind of representative assembly' (Lord Minto). .
The reforms introduced Indians to the legislative culture - developing opinions out of the  interaction  of different interests.  This is  the essence of Parliamentary institutions. The transfer of Parliamentary responsibility now became the logical next. Introduction of elections.(though indirect-elections),  the  power of  asking supplementary questions (though restricted), the right of voting on some part of the budget (the votable part), the right of moving resolution on the matters of public interest strengthehed legislative practices. The non-offtcial and elective base also was  sufficient1 hvanced as compared  to the earlier Acts. The Indian Netional Congress, handled by the Moderates,  said  that  the  scheme was a 'large  and liberal installment o reforms'.  Morley had discussed these reform proposals with Gokhale, the liberal leader.
But the rules and regulations made under the Act and the  implications of certain provisions defeated the liberal spirit. The indirect system of.elections inspired little interest  and offered less  political  education. The representation of different functional interests affected the team spirit of the non-officials. The most harmful was the provision for separate representation for Muslims. This was the beginning of the  communal representation, the  communal electorate which  logically led to the partition of the country on communal basis. The Muslims objected to the joint electoral colleges but the role of the Government has also been  very evident and positive  in  introducing  communal  electorates.  The  Muslims  had  got proportionately more representation than  their population on  the  assumption of their political importance. Similar protection was not extended to Hindus minority in Muslim majority provinces. Also the Governor General had powers to reject the appointment of any elected member to the council. And this provision  restricted the freedom of the electorate.
The non-official majority in provincial councils yas n.ot elective. The Europeans in the Indian eyes were as good as officials. The fantilords and nominated members habitually voted  with the  government. The representation  gave  Indians  only personal influence but  not power in  legislative councils. The constituencies were small (the largest which returned a Member directly had 650 voters). Even with enlarged functions, the powers and position of legislative councils were secondary. The resolutions of the council were not binding on the Gbvemment. Its deliberations were of advisory nature. The official members were fully controlled by the official mandate and had tittle freedom in legislative participation. Reorganigation of Departments Constitutional refms were reflected  in  the  changing  structure  of  the governmntal machihery as the government moved towards the federal  form. Creation  of new departments,  their  reorganisation and setting procedures for smooth conduct of department business naturally became inevitable. Departmental orNsation not  only  makes administration smooth  but  also streamlines its processes and secures economy in its operation. In the beginning, administration was grouped  under two broad segments one covering  General, Foreign and Finance and the second covering  Secret, Revenue and Judicial departments. In  1843, administration was divided into four departments, Military, Foreign, Home and Finance. The Home department dealt with legislation also. In 1855, a  separate department of Public Works was established  with the development  of  irrigation and  railways.  In  the  cause of time  three  main departments were established.  The Legislative Department (1869) took over the legislative work of the Home Depment. Obviously, it did not initiate or originate legislation.  The second department was Agriculture, Revenue and Commerce created in  1871  mainly to work as a guiding agency in  the context of  recurring famines. The third dbpartment was Industries and Commerce established in  1905. The Railway Board also yas constituted in the same year. It was to look after the Industrial and commercial development of the  country. Due to the controversy between Cumn atrd Kitchner  over  the  military  administration in  India, the Military  department was divided into  two  separate departments,  the Army Department and theiMilitiuy Supply Department. In  191 1, Education department was created. The ctljation of departments reflects the growinguolume of work attended by them. It is during this peribd that the concept of departmental responsibility grew: Lord Dalhousie assigned each member of the Council some specific departments and introduced  the  classification  of  papers as urgent,  routine,  unimportant and important. Only urgent papers would go directly to the Governor-General. Finally, in  1862 the portfolio system came  into operation. The  distribution of work was made specific and the  system of noting was introduced. In 1882 the flat file system was adopted. Lord Cunon improved upon this system to reduce delay to minimise official pedantry. The  emphasis was  on discouraging  excessive  noting and encouraging personal communication The Civil Service Before the Charter Act of 1833, the kourt of Directors of the East India Company controlled the selection and appointment of Civil Servants. The nominations were made individually by the Directors. Young Englishmen took writership as a career and they entered into a covenant to serve the company faithfully and honestly. They  were, therefgre,  called as  'Covenanted  Servants'.  The uncovenanted personnel were nqt a part of regular graded service. Abo the  security of service was limited. The distinction between the two was, however, getting blurred over a period. With the Act of  1833, the disciplinary control 6f the Government of India was established over civil servants. The important  issues in the development of civil service were thb age of reMtment, division of service between executive and judicial  branches dd the need and en*  of  Indians  into these services. Lord Salisbury in  1874 keduced the upper age limit  to nineteen and the  lower  to seventeen. This affkted Indian candidates. Though the  division  of  service  into administrative and judicial branches was  not favoured, Sir Campbell  &vised the system of Parallel lines of Promotion and a covenanted servant would choose after some years of service one or the other line. As the number of covenanted servants was restricted, the need for expanding uncovenanted services to fill in subordinate services was felt. ?this became obvious with provincial services and  growth in governmental work. This subsequently led to the demand of Indianisation of these services as later reflected in the Lee Commission Report(1924).

Financial Administration

A centralised financial system was introduced in  1833 as the earlier structure was  too diffused for effective control and economy. Lord Ellenborough created the post of a Finance  Secretary at  the Central  level and brought  all  financial operations under the review of the  Government of India. It realised effective control and economy but ended in delay in final approval. Ellenborough really wanted to have a Finance Member on his council. For Central control the ofice of the Comptroller General of Accounts was created and he remained in charge of appropriation audit.
In  1860, the  system  of budget  was  introduced.  Financial  relations  were decentralised for  the  first  time  in  1870 when Lord Mayo made provincial government responsible for the management of local finance in some areas which were primarily of provincial  interest. This relieved  the  Imperial  Finance  too because  provincial  governments  were  expected to raise  additional  revenue by raising local taxes. Obviously provincial budgets were required to be submitted to the Government of India for approval.

Police Administration

The law and order was earlier a community function and  was administered by a  non-official force controlled by individual zamindars. Lord Cornwallis introduced bthe daroga system in  1792, replacing zamindari thanedars under the direct control of the district head  and on its payroll. At the village level, village patels performed the  functions, both revenue  and  police. With the experiment in  Sindh by Sir Charles Napier, a separate self-contained expert police force came into existence.
At every district there was a Superintendent who was subordinate to the District Magistrate but departmentally under the control of the Commissioner of Police. In 1860, the Government of India appointed a Police Commission. It recommended the  establishment of a single homogenous force  of civil constabulary. It  was controlled by the Inspector General of Police. He was assisted in his work at the district level by a District Superintendent. The District Magistrate  retained  his judicial  authority  in  the administration of criminal justice.  The codification of  penal and procedural law also was undertaken.

Local Administration

Local government institutions are both n itural and useful.  Village  community government  existed in  India with a vil1ak.e headman  performing both civil and judicial functions. But the present system of local government is entirely a British creation.  The principle of election  and Lie concept of representativeness  were foreign to the old local government systeni. The Mayo resolution of 1870 stressed the need for introducing self government in local areas to raise local resources to administer locally important services and also to provide local interest and care in the management of their funds. Municipal Acts were accordingly passed in many provinces with elective local  bodies  coming  into  existence.  The first  local government, the Madras Corporation was established in 1687. In a course of time, other Presidency towns also formed local governments. Lord Ripon's resolution in 1882 has. been regarded as the landmark in  the history of local government in India.  The resolution  declared  that  'it  was not  primarily with a view of improvement that  this measure is  put forward - It  is chiefly  desirable as an instrument of political and popular education'. The resolution  extended election principle with an elected non-official Chairman. Ripon wanted to provide for the new educated middle class an opportunity for association and thereby check rigid bureaucracy.

THE MONTAGUE-CHELMSFORD REFORMS 1919

The Preamble of the Government of India Act 1919

'It is the declared policy of the Parliament to provide for the increasing association  of Indians  in  every  branch of lndian  administration  and  for  the  gradual development of the empire,governing institutions with a view  to the  progressive realisation of responsible government in  British  India as an integral part of the Empire. In response: to the spirit'of the preamble, the Act provided complete popular control as far as possible in  local  government  areas.  There was also maximum popular repesentathn ed freedom to provincial  government. This is reflected in  the system of diarchy. The Government of  India was still  to be responsible to the British Parliament. But Indian  legislative council was enlarged and made more propularly representative. In tune with the spirit of the declaration, the control of British parliament over the Indian Government was relaxed and that of Central Governmedt over the provincial .government was  reduced. The basic contention was that where  the Government of India  and the Central  legislature were in agreement, the Home Government would not  interfere. Main features of the 1919 Act include& (a) the Council of the Secretaq of state to have eight to twelve members with thee Indian Members and at least one-half of them  to have spent a minimum of ten years in India; (b) the Secretary of the state to follow the advice  rendered by the Council; (c) the Secretary of  state was not allowed to interfere in the  administrative matters of the provinces concerning 'Transferred subjects'; (d) to carryout their administrative affairs, the  Governors were  given power  of instructions &  a guide; (e) other than  Muslims, the minorities including Sikhs,  Anglo-Indians, Christians and Europeans were  given right of  separate electorate; etc.

The Central Government

The  Central Government was more representative and  responsive but  not responsible. The Govetnor General at the  apex of  administration was still an autocrat. He had the powers of superintendence, direction and  control  over the entire administration  and these  were  very effective powers. Ih theory,  the Government of India was ruled by the Government of England and the Governor General who differed fiom the policy of the Secretary of State had  no alternative but to resign. But in actual practice, the Governor General as the man on the spot carried a great deal of power and influence. He could werrule the decisions of his Executive  Council. He was 'the  executive'.  The  executive  councillors  were virtually his nominees. He had full control over foreign and political department (department dealing with princely States in India). Every bill passed by the Central or  Provincial  Legislature needed  his assent, in certain cases his  prior ascent. He could put any bill  on the statute,  also restore cuts. He has used his powers to overtide the legislature (for example,  Princes'  Protection Act  1923, the Finance Bill 1925 raising salt duty).
The Legislature was broad based (the strength of the Council of States 60, and the Central Legislative  Assetnbly  140). But its composition was faulty  and powers very much restricted. The Communal representation introduced in the 1909 Act for Muslims was now extended to other communities like the Sikhs, the European thus encouraging separatist teqdencies in tbe Indian people. The Governor General thus had too many powers and was not responsible to the Legislature.

Mochinev of'Dyarchy at the Provinces

The division of subjects into Central and Provincial '(Federalism) and the further division at the provincial level between Reserved and Transferred subjects was a novel feature of the Mont-Ford Reforms. Dyarchy means double government at the provinces. The  'Reserved'  subjects in charge of councillors, 'nominated' by the Governor and transferred subjects in charge of councillors - Ministers 'appointed' by him. The  reserved subjects were  really  'key' departments while  transferred subjects were felt 'safe'  even  if  placed in the Indian  hands. The councillor in charge of reseved subject was not responsible to the Secretary of State and  the British parliament. The ministers in charge of transferred subjects were responsible to the  provincial legislature. -The Governor exercised effective powers over the whole administration through the Instrument of Instruction and Executive Business  Rules.

The Balance Sheet of Reforms 

The experiment of diarchy failed. The Indian National Congress boycotted the first elections (1920). Though it participated in the second election (1924), its expressed objective was to wreck the reforms. Dyarchy was bound to fail. It was structurally weak and insincere in spirit. It could not, therefore, evolve those conventions and practice which are very necessity for  administration of any constitutional experiment of such as  magnitude. Thd division of subject also was  wrong as a subject would be partly divided as reserved and partly transferred, e.g., irrigation  was reserved but agriculture which very much depended on alsb the concept ofjoint responsibility of the council. The division of Council between councillors and Ministers and the excessive control of Finance reforms  (reserved subject) over the  administration of transferred  subject affected their smooth functioning. Transferred subjects starved financially as they needed more  money for development. And to their  disadvantage the sources of revenue were 'jointly' kept. The Secretaries of the Departments, belongng to the ruling class also did not cooperate with ministers in charge of transferred subjects. ' But it  created parliamentary atmosphere in the  legislature and gave  people an opportunity to have a look in  administration. Some  major reforms pertaining to local government (Bombay, Bengal) and Education Social Welfare (Madras) were carried out during this period. Almost in every province, right to vote was extended to women.
Dyarchy  failed but it showed the way to further reform - a  federal government which should be more representative and more responsive.

British Administration

INTRODUCTION

British administration in  India. till  1858  was mainly that  of the  East India Company. Though the British Government passed Acts  from time to time, and interfered  with and  regulated the  Company's administration,  the  complete takeover by the Crown took place in 1858. Also, the Company, which began as a purely commercial corporation, gradually attained the status of a Government or While  the British started tmding  operations from  1600 A.D., other foreign powers like the Portuguese, the Dutch and the French were already in the trading business. So the British  were in  competition with other European powers to capture the trade in the East. Simultaneously, they competed.to acquire territorial supremacy. This was possible because of the collapse of the Moghul Empire and  the mutually destructive wars between princes and nawabs. For instance, through the  Carnatic  wars,  the  English secured  the  Northern Circars which were previously  administered by  the French. By winning the Battle of Plassey in Bengal in 1757 and through the Treaty of Allahabad, the british got   in 1765, the Diwani  of  Bengal, Bihar  and Orissa  and the  right  of administering  these provinces andcollecting their revenue. In  a  hundred years, from the Battle of Plassey (1757) to the Sepoy  Mutiny (1857), the British  virtually captured the whole of India and  India soon became the brightest jewel in the British Crown.
In  a  hundred years, from the Battle of Plassey (1757) to the Sepoy  Mutiny (1857), the British  virtually captured the whole of India and  India soon became the brightest jewel in the British Crown.

THE NATURE OF ADMINISTRATION

Characteristic Features of the East India Company
The East India Company, established on 31* December 1600, was a monopoly, mercantile Company, which  was granted by the British crown the right-to trade in  the eastern  parts.  A  trading station,  with a number of factors was  called Factory. A settlement (number of factories) was under ah Agedt. Factor was the term  applied to an agent  transacting business as a substitute  for  another in mercantile  affairs.  Employees were  graded as &;,irentices, writers, factors and merchants. Recruitment of officials, their  nomenclature,  terms and conditions  of  service were  governed by  rules  and practices apptopriate to commercial  business. Generally, patronage  was the  method  of  recruitment  and promotion in  the services. Patronage was in  the hands  of the Proprietors or Directors of the Company.
In the early years  of  Company rules, officials were  frequently  moved  around, from one district to another. They had no training on the job and  learnt the hard way by trial and error. They were ignorant of the laws, customs and languages of  the local people. Given very low salaries, the Company's  servants were known to be corrupt. The system of governance was  commercial in  character. It  was basically government by Council. The Council had executive and  legislative powers with the  overn nor or the  Governor-General  having  the  casting vote.  With the acquisition of more territorial  sovereignty and the need to take prompt decisions, more power came to be concentrated in the head or Chairman of the Council, but the fundamental  principle of collective rule and responsibility remained. It  was also a  government by Boards. ,After the Board of trade,  the next in importance was the Military bard. But the Board of Revenue bad the longest history  and the most distinguished record of work.  Later, there was also  the Railway Board. The Board  made  possible  counseling, discussion, deliberation and even  legislative and judicial activities. Questions of policy and principle,conduct and action were settled in the Board. It was  a  government by record.  When transactions were commercial, records were  brief and  manageablg. But  political dealings made record  keeping cumbersome and voluminous. Notes, minutes, despatches and reports became an integral  part of British administration. All this was in  necessary because only through written  reports and records  could control be exercised by officials in  the  governmental hierarchy.  With the  Company  headquarters in  far away England, record keeping helped check absolutism and uncontrolled power.
The East India Company  mismanaged  administration of acquired  territories in India. One example of it  is through  Clive's Double or Dual Government of Bengal, Bihar and Orissa. While the Company took over direct responsibility for defending these  territories  from outside attack,  internal  matters,  like  revenue collection was still  left to the Nawab and his officers who  worked on behalf of the Company. This was  because the Company did not  know the local customs and practices and felt comfortable  leaving  the  existing  system  of  revenue collection  intact. But this resulted in exploitatiorl of the worst kind as maximum revenue was extracted  from the people. Though it was done in the name of the Company,  which  got a bad name on  this  account, the Nawab and his men pocketed a lot and grew rich at the cost of the Company.
 

The Regulating Act of 1773

This Act  deserves  special  mention because it was the  first actron on the part of  the  British  Government to regulate  the  affairs of the  Company in  India. The  Company,  through a Charter, had only been given trading rights by the British Crown. When it  acquired  territories in  India and slowly but surely  converted itself  into a ruling  body,  the  Parliament  could not accept  and  regularise  this development.  Moreover, it  was  believed  that  whatever  lands the Company acquired  were in  the  name of and  on  behalf of  the King.  Therefore, the administration of these territories had to be controlled by the Crown.
Again, merchants and traders could hardly equal the task of administration. This was proved by the growing level of corruption and mismanagement of territorial acquisitions:  While  the  shareholders of  the Company  were  looking  for bigger dividends because the Company was playing a double role of trading and ruling,the Company  was  making big losses and had to be bailed out.  To  tide  over a critical  period when finances  were low because of Indian  wars  and  growing demand for increased dividends, the Company asked the British Parliament for a loan of E 1,400,000. This  gave  Parliament a long-awaited  chance to assert its right to control the political affairs of the East India Company. They granted the loan on condition that administration in India would be according to directions of the British Parliament. Hence, the Regulating Act of 1773 was passed.

Changes Introduced by the Regulating Act in England
 

The Court of Proprietors of the Company was reformed. Formerly, a shareholder, holding a stock off 500 and over, became a member of the Court of Proprietors. The Regulating Act raised it to the minimum to E 1000. This made the Court of  Proprietors a compact, better organised body to discharge both  its duties  and responsibilities.
Changes were also made in the. Board of Directors. It was now to consist of 24 members elected by the  Court  of  Proprietors every 4 years, 6 directors retiring every year - instead of all the Directors being elected every year as before. This gave the Board some continuity and facilitated better management.

Changes Introduced by the Regulating  Act in India
The Governor of Bengal was now designated as the Governor-General of Bengal and Governors of other provinces in India were subordinate to him. The Governor- General  was  to be-assisted by a council  of  four  members  sent from England. Decisions were to be taken by majority vote  and the Governor-General Warren Hastings had a casting vote. The British territories in India came to be controlled from Bengal and that in turn was subject to control from England.
The Regulating Act set up the Supreme Court at Calcutta with Lord Chief Justice and three judges. This was the Supreme Court of Judicature, the highest court in British India. It had power to exercise civil, criminal, admiralty and ecclesiastical jurisdiction. It had jurisdiction over British subjects and Company's servants. But its relations with the existing courts were not defined.

Effects of the Regulating Act
The  changes in  the  Company's  organisation in  England  made it more effective managing body at headquarters.The Act created a  centralised administration in  India,  making the Bombay  and Madras Governors subordinate to the Governor-General of Bengal. There was a felt need for a uniform policy for the whole of British India, thus, avoiding much wasteful expenditure.
'The  creation of the Supreme Court made for better justice to British subjects. The Regulating Act brought in  a  system of checks and balances. It made the Governors  subordinate  to  the  Governor-General, the  Governor-General subordinate to his Council and the Supreme Court effective in its control over the Governor-General in Council.
The Regulating Act laid the foundation of a Central administration and instituted a  system  of  Parliamentary  control. It  marked the  beginning of the  Company's transformation from a  trading body to  a  Corporation  of  a new  kind, entirely administrative in its object and subordinate to Parliament.

Defects of the Regulating Act 

 
Though the Act was expected to regulate and centralise administration to  provide better justice and bring in a system of checks and balances, it was found to have serious  drawbacks in  practice.  For example, it had the following defects relating to the Supreme Court:
i) The  ambiguity  of  jurisdiction between the  Supreme  Council,  and the Governor-General in  Council  was  a  drawback in the Act of 1773. The Regulating Act entrusted the entire civil and military administration of the diwani prot-inces to  the  Governor-General and Council. But the  Supreme Court  was  also autborised to take cognizance of cases not only against British  but also  native \employees of the Company. It  could  punish all persons who  committed' acts of oppression either in  the exercise of civil jurisdiction or in  the  collection of revenue. But the Act did not specify whose authority would be final in case of a conflict between the Council and the  Court.  These  difficulties arose because the Company  which was the virtual  sovereign of the diwani  provinces was not declared to be so by Parliament.
ii) The  Regulations passed by the  Governor-General in  Council had to be registered by the Supreme Court before they were executed as law. Court's refusal  to do it  could amount to  hamper the  smooth  working of the administration and there was no explanation provided to this effect.
iii)  The Act  did not clearly specify which  law had to be applied while trying cases. The Court applied English law in all cases even where Indians were charged with offences. This was resented by the Indians.
iv)  The Provincial and other Courts were not recognised. All these defects did much  harm. The British  Government corrected these  defects through the Amending Act of 1781.

The drawbacks relating to the Governor-General-in-Council included:
The Governor-General was answerable to the Directors and was held responsible for all acts pertaining to the administration in India. But he was not given a free hand as he was bound by the  majority decisions  of his council. Though this is understandable as part of the system of checks and balances, yet it resulted in the Council  taking  decisidns for'which  the  Governor-General  alone  was  held
accountable. There was constant friction between the Governor-General and his Council, as a result, administration suffered.
Though the Governors were subordinate to the Governor-General,  yet, in actual practice,  they  acted  independently of Bengal.  They justified  their action by saying, the matter was urgent and decisions could not be delayed. In this way, the idea of unity and uniformity sought by the Act was defeated in practice. According to  the Regulating  Act, the East India Company  was to supply all
c&espondence  relating  to  military,  administrative  and  financial matters to the British Government. This indirect control  did not work satisfactorily in practice and  the  Proprietors and  Directors  followed  a  policy  based  on  personal consideration of his rather than administrative need.

The Amending Act of 1781

This Act  amended the jurisdiction of the  Supreme  Court. It was  deprived of its right to action arising in the collection of revenue. Landholders, farmers or other persons connected iri,land revenue work were not covered by the Supreme  Court.
In the same way,  no person, just by virtue of being the Company's  employee, could  be  subjected  to  the  Court's jurisdiction.  Even though  the  Court's jurisdiction extended  over all the inhabitants of Calcutta, the Court had to take into account personal.laws of Hindus in case of Hindus and Quranic law in case of Muslims.
The Amending Act recognised the appellate jurisdiction o'f the Governor-General and Council and confirmed their judicial authority to entertain all such pleas and appeals as they had done all along as a Court of record. The Governor-General and Council  were  further devested  with  "power  and authority, final time to time, to frame regulations for the provincial  courts and councils". Their legislation under this Act, was not to be subject to registration in the Supreme Court of Judicature, but was required to be finally approved by his Crown.

Pitt's India Act 1784

The shortcomings of the regulating  Act soon became manifest. To remedy these defects was not easy because it involved a complete separation of commercial and political functions of the Company which was viewed with disfavour in England. The urge for a change was very strong and it could not be suppressed for long. In 1783, a bill was introduced  by Dundas,  but it failed. In the  same year, Fox
introduced  two  bills  but these  were  rejected  in  the  House of Lords. When William Pitt came to head the Government he was determined  to introduce a bill on India  and see it through. At the first attempt, it was defeated by a narrow majority  and on second attempt after Pitt's  party was returned to power it was introduced.
Pitt's India Act provided for a body of six commissioners popularly known as the Board of Control. It consisted of one Secretary of State, the Chancellor of the Exchequer and four Privy Councillors appointed by the king and holding office during his 'pleasure.  Three of the  six formed  a  quorum  and the  President possessed a casting vote in case opinion was equally divided. The Secretary of State was to preside over the meetings of the Board,  which in his absence, done was by the Chancellor of the Exchequer or a Senior Commissioner.
The Board of Control was empowered to superintend,  direct and control the Company's'affairs in India with regard to civil,  military and revenue  work. The Directors of the  Company had  to  deliver  to  the  Board,  copies of all correspondence with the compahy. The orders of the Board on civil and military government or revenues of India became binding on the Directors. According to the Act, the Board could transmit, through a secret committee of three Directors, secret orders to India on the subject of war, peace, or diplomatic negotiation  with any of the country powers.
The Proprietors lost  most  of their  powers. They  could no longer  revoke  or modih a decision  taken by the  Directors with the approval of the Board of Council.
The Directors retained their control of commerce and right to patronage except in the appbintment of the Governor-General of the Governors of Madras and Bombay and the Commanders-in-Chief of the three Presidencies. The arrangement made by Pitt's  India Act operated till 1858. Indian Government was subjected to a  system of dual control in which the Company could  initiate proposals subject to the revising and directing authority of the Board. The Act reduced the number of members of the Governor-General's  Council to three. One of them was to be the Commander-in-Chief. The Act clearly  indicated the  subordinate  character  of the Governments  of Bombay and Madras and made independent action on their part,  impossible. The Governor-General-in-Council  had the power  and authority to superintend, direct and  control other  Presidencies in all matters. The entire diplomatic relations of the Company in India as also  the  finances necessary to support  them were entrusted to the  Governor-General-in-Council. The subordinate  governments were directed not to disobey any of the orders of the Supreme government on the ground of competence. They had to obey such orders in all cases except when they  received positive orders and instructions from the Directors  or the Secret Committee.  They also had  to send  true  and  exact copies of all such orders, resolutions or acts to the Governor-General-in-Council.
Pitt's  India  Act  invested  the  Governor-General-in-Council  with  much discretionary power to deal with emergencies. Though they  had to obey orders from  home,  they  could  act  on their  own when  the  situation warranted  it. Generally, in matters of war and peace, the Governor-General-in-Council was to be guided by instructions of the Court of Directors.
Hence, through Pitt's India Act, the Control of the Crown over the Company, of the  Company  over  the  Governor-General-in-Council and of the  supreme government  over the  subordinate Presidencies  was greatly  improved  and fairly well defined.

The Amending Act of 1786 

 
The Amending Act of 1786 took care of the problem related to the Councils of the Governor-General  and  Governors. The Act  invested  the Governor-General or Governor  with  power to override the decision of his Council  and act without  its concurrence in extraordinary cases involving in his judgment  the  interests of the Company or the safety and tranquility of British India.
If  the  Governor-General or Governor had to  use this extraordinary power, to overrule the majority,  both sides had to put in writing their respective positions on the issue under dispute. If the Governor-General or Governor finally chose to act in his own way, he was personally to bear the responsibility of the  measure adopted without the concurrence of the Council.

Revenue Department When the Company acquired Diwani provinces in  1765, the collection of revenue was left to  Indian officers who  acted as agents for the  British. This arrangement continued till 1769 when the Governor-General and Council appointed Supervisors in all districts to acquire knowledge of revenue resources and report on abuses in the  current system. But since their  powers  were  limited and they  failed in  their duties, a new  management was created. There was to be a Controlling Council of Revenue at Murshidabad and another at Patna. Since these lacked co-ordination, a Controlling Committee of Revenue was set up in 1771 at Calcutta with powers to inspect, control and direct revenue affairs. In  1772, the Company decided to stand forth as diwan and carry out all revenue administration through  its own  men. So a  Committee  of  Circuit was  formed which  worked along with  the Controlling  Committee of Revenue.  Finally in 1772, it was decided to have a Revenue Department  at Calcutta in place of these various bodies. The Department had a Secretary, an Assistant  Secretary, and a sub-secretary,  a  Persian  TransIator,  an  Accountant-General  and  several Assistants.
In  addition to  Department  Secretaries to Government who acted  under the direction and control of the Council, there were three inferior Boards to take care of details of execution.  These were:
1)  The Committee of Revenue formed in  1781 to take care of revenue, justice and police.
2)  The Board of Ordinance, formed in 1775 to manage military stores.
3)  The Board of Trade formed in 1774 for commercial transactions. In 1785, these were reconstituted as the Board of Revenue, the Military Board and the Board of Trade.

THE CIVIL SERVICE

With responsibilities  of ruling  territorial  possessions  in  India,  the  British Governors and Councillors needed assistants in the Central offices and in districts. They also had to study the manners and customs of the people, collect necessary facts  and make  timely recommendations.  To begin  with, the  men to  fill this important role in public service were drawn from the ranks of writers, factors and merchants of the Company. It was not till 1769 that some of these officers were appointed supervisors over  large areas and charged with responsibilities. Though most of the men  did  not prove  equal  to their  tasks there were a few like John Shore, Charles Stewart, Charles Grant and Jonathan Duncan who did outstanding work. The Court of Directors continued to send every year fresh batch of writers without  realising that a revolutionary change had taken place in the Company's role and functions and. therefore, better equipped  men were required. None of the Acts of Parliament between 1773 and 1793 looked into the education and training of civil servants inIndia.
To the open question as to whether administration would be efficiently conducted by only 1ndians;a mixed agency or exclusively by the British, Cornwallis provided the  answer by deciding on the policy of complete  Europeanisation. All higher positions in Government service were filled by the Company's British covenanted servants. The Charter Act of 1793 took care of this and provided the Charter or Rights of civil  servants.  Promotion  was by  seniority.  Duties of different departments were defined. Salaries were proportionate to responsibility.
Wellesley realised that civil servants of the Company had to discharge functions of Magistrates, Judges, Ambassadors, etc. To discharge these duties efficiently they had to be not only well acquainted with  the languages, laws  and usages of the people but  be well-informed on the  British  Constitution and be well  versed in Ethics, Civil Jurisprudence, the laws of nations and general history. To provide all these, Wellesley set up the College of Fort William in Calcutta. The civil servants of Bombaypd Madras had to undergo training at the College like those of Bengal for three years.
The three year course provided for instruction in liberal arts, classical and Modern History and Literature, Law of Nations,  Ethics and Jurisprudence. The  syllabus also included  Indian languages,  different  codes and  regulations. The college aroused mental and intellecual powers of the civil  servants and imbroved theirmorals to a considerable extent. But the College was short-lived. After seven years it continued as only a language school.
In 1805, the Hailey bury college was set up in England and that really spelt the end of the College at Fort William. The young recruits to the covenanted Civil Service had to spend two years at Hailey  bury and for the next 50 years the ICS was the product of the Hailey bury College.
The syllabus drawp up by Wellesley for his College was followed at the Hailey bury College.  The young  civil servants had to continue their  mathematical and classical  education for two years  under expert  guidance. They had also to read Political  Economy, principles of jurispendence,  elements of Indian  history and rudiments of Indian legal codes and regulations and Indian languages.
But  admission was still on the  basis  of patronage.  Each of the  Company's Directors  could  nominate one  candidate while Chairman and Deputy Chairman could nominate two candidates each. Though there was an entrance test, it was so simple, that no one ever failed it. Though candidates did equip themselves with liberal education, the standard at Hailey bury was not really high or else it would have resulted in a high  rate  of failures. The admission system, though modified later, was at best, one of qualified patronage.
Despite this, the College had a good name and its products were known for their corporate outlook and spirit comradeship yvhich they brought to India. These may in  far-flung part. of India  still  upheld  old Hailey bury ties. They set healthy traditions especially in honesty  and integrity. But at the same time they felt high and mighty and some did become despotic in outlook and dictatorial in behaviour.
In  1837, an arrangement was made for  the  preliminary  examinations to .Hailey bury College. Yet it did not achieve the expected results. The men who came out to India  were not of the level of competence demanded by the work.-Meanwhile, opposition  was  developing in  England against patronage since 1833,  when  the Company lost the last vestige of commercial monopoly. The Northcote Trevelyan Report submitted to Paliament in  1854 suggested that patronage must give place to open  competitive examination. Among those happy to promote merit  system was Macaulay. Once  the principle of competition was accepted, the  necessary regulations had to be framed. For this an expert body  was appointed of which Macaulay  was Chairman.  The  committee  recommended that  candidates be between ages 18 and 23 and the examination should be  in subjects of liberal study.the introduction of the competatitive test means end of Hailey Bury College.First  competitive  examination  was  held in  1855. From 1858  the exams were
conducted by the British Civil Service Commission. It must be noted that the Civil Service established a great reputation for itself as a most  efficient,  honest  and  upright  organ of government. But civil  servants  had limited functions to perform. They were essentially concerned with law and order and revenue administration.

Indian Government Act, 1935

The Simon Commission (1927)

' The 1919 Act had provided for the  appointment of a Commission to review the  provisions of the Act in the  light of its working and to extend, modify or restrict  'the  degree of responsibility of government of India. The Commission  was  to be appointed in  1929 as per the provisions of the  Act. it for  various  political
reasons, it was appointed in  1927 with Sir John  Simon as its Chairman. The all- European  composition of the  Commission  was  taken  as an insult  to  Indian nationalism. The Indian  National  Congress,  therefore,  decided to boycott the Commission at every stage and in every form. The slogan 'Simon Go Back' had an
electrifying effect. There was also a revival of terrorist activity reflecting the anger of the people due to the manner in which the national leaders like Lala Lajpat Rai were  treated by the  police. The Commission,  however, completed  its work. The recommendations  of the  report  were  further  examined  by the  Joint  Select Committee of the Parliament.
1 The Simon  report  recommended the discontinuation of the dyarchy  and  leave provincial  government in  the  hands of ministers  responsible to  provincial legislatures. some safeguards, however, were retained in the interest of minorities in the grant of special powers to the Governor. It recommended a Federation like
structure at the Centre - a 'Council of Greater India'  representing both the interests -the British India and the princely States. Political atmosphere in India was hostile to acceptance of the report. Otherwise, some of the recommendations of the Simon Commission  would have hastened the process of fully responsible government in the provinces as well as at the centre.

The Nehru Scheme

Boycotting the  Simon Commission  was  a  negative way of response.  The challenge was to frame a proposal of constitutional reforms acceptable to all. An All Party Conference was, therefore,  called at-Delhi in  February 1928 and it came out with a report  within six months  (August,  1928) known as the Nehru
Report. It was named after Pandit Motilal Nehru,;the Chairman of the Committee which  was  constituted to  draft the  recommendations. The Indian  National Congress ratified the Nehru report in its Calcutta session held in December 1928. !
The report recommended responsible governments both at the provinces and the Centre. The Central government had bicameral  legislature. Its lower house (The House of Representatives) was directly  elected from joint  non-communal constituencies. The distribution of power was on  federal  basis with  residual
powers retained with the Centre. It recommended settina up a defence committee with advisory functions. It also provided  Fundamental Rights in the constitution.  The Report suggested reorganisation of provinces (creation of Sindh, and raising the status of North West Frontier province)  so as to help Muslims have majority in  four provinces. It recommended princely states to  hasten the introduction of similar changes.

Government of India Act,1935:

Main Features

The White Paper and the Joint Select Committee report shaping the Government of India Act  1935 dropped and altered many suggestions  of the  Simon Commission and the  recommendations of the  Round Table conferences. This confirms that 'British  nation has  no intention  whatsoever of relinquishing  effective control of Indian life and progress'  (Winston Churchill). The Act retained the supremacy of
the British Parliament and also the Preamble of the Act of 1919. It meant 'gradual realisation of self governing institutions' as the goal and there was no mention of  Dominion status and the inclusion of provisions to attain it. All rights of amending, altering or repealing the provisions were kept with the British Parliament. The Act removed  dyarchy of the provincial level  but introduced it at the Central  level. It
also introduced safeguards operated in the interest of the British. For the first time, the wide range of subjects were classified in the three list system and assigned to appropriate level of government. This was a novel experiment.

Phases of Indian Economy before Independence

                 Phases of Indian Economy before Independence

1600-1757:The East India Company was a purely trading company dealing with import of goods and precious metals into India and export  of spices and textiles.

1757 - 1813 (The Merchantilist Phase)
1.The East India Company monopolized trade and began direct  plunder of India’s wealth.
2.They could impose their own prices that had no relation to the  costs of production. This was the phase of buccaneering  capitalism whereby wealth flowed out of the barrel of the trader’s guns.
3.The company used its political power to monopolize trade & dictate terms to the weavers of Bengal
4.The company used revenue of Bengal to finance exports oi Indian goods.

1813-1858 (The Industrial Phase)
The commercial policy of the East India Company after 1813 was guided by the needs of the British industry
1.The British mercantile industrial capitalist class exploited India as Industrial Revolution in Britain completely transformed Britain’s  economy
2.Charter Act of 1813 allowed one way free trade for British citizens resulting in Indian markets flooded with cheap & machine made  imports. Indians lost not only their foreign markets hut their markets   in India too.
3.India was now forced to export raw materials consisting of raw  cotton jute and silk, oilseeds, wheal, indigo and tea, and import   finished products.
4.Indian products had to compete with British products with heavy   import duties on entry into Britain.

1860 & After (Finance Colonialism): The essence of 19th century colonialism lay in the transformation of India into a supplier of  foodstuffs  and raw materials to the metropolis, a market for metropolitan  manufactures and a field for investment of British capital.
1.Started with the emergence of the phase of Finance Capitalism m  Britain. The rebellion of 1957 was the key factor in the change of   the nature of the colonialism.
2.The British introduced roads and railways, post and telegraph,  banking and other services under the ‘guaranteed interests’  schemes (government paid a minimum dividend even if profits were nonexistent). Various investments by the British capitalists  were also made in India.
3.As a result of this, the burden of British public debts kept on increasing and India became, in
the real sense, a colony of Britain.

Land Revenue Systems

Land Revenue Systems

Permanent Settlement: 

Introduced in Bengal, Bihar, Orissa, and districts of Banaras & Northern districts  of Madras by Lord Cornwallis in 1793. 

John Shore planned the Permanent Settlement.

It declared Zamindars as the owners of the land. Hence they could keep l/l1th of the revenue collected to themselves while the British got a Fixed share of 10/11th of the revenue collected. The Zamindars were free to fix  the rents.

Assured of their ownership, many zamindars stayed in towns (absentee land lordism) and exploited their  tenants. 

Ryotwari System:

Introduced in Bombay, Madras and Assam. Munro (Viceroy) and Charles Reed recommended it.

In this, a direct settlement was made between the government and the ryot (cultivator).

The revenue was fixed for a period not exceeding 30 years,   on the basis of the quality of the soil and the nature of  the crop. It was based on the scientific rent theory of Ricardo.

The position of the cultivator became more secure but the rigid system of revenue collection often forced him into the clutches of the moneylender.

Mahalwari System:

Modified version of Zamindari settlement  introduced in the Ganga valley, NWFP. parts of   Central  India & Punjab.

Revenue settlement was to be made by village or  estates with landlords. In western Uttar Pradesh, a   settlement was made with  the village communities,  which maintained  a  form   of  common   ownership  known  as Bhaichara, or with Mahals, which were groups of villages.

Revenue was periodically revised.

Indian Councils Act 1909

Indian Councils  Act 1909

The Indian Councils  Act 1909 is commonly known, as the Morely-Minto Reforms. It was an Act   of   the   Parliament   of   the   United   Kingdom   that   brought   about   a   limited   increase   in   the involvement of Indians in the governance of British India.
John Morley , the then Secretary of State for  India, and the Governor general of India  Minto believed   that   cracking   down   on   terrorism   in   Bengal   was  necessary   but   not   sufficient   for   restoring
stability to the British Raj after Lord Curzon’s partitioning of Bengal. They believed that a dramatic step   was   required   to   put   heart   into   loyal   elements   of   the   Indian   upper   classes   and   the   growing
westernized section of the population.
The  Act of 1909 was important for the following reasons.
• It   effectively   allowed  the   election  of   Indians  to  the   various  legislative   councils   in  India   for
the first. Previously some Indians had been appointed to legislative councils.The majorities of   the   councils   remained   British   government   appointments.   Moreover,   the   electorate   was limited to specific classes of Indian nations.
• The   system   of   election   introduced   by   the   Act   provided   for   separate   representation   for
Muslim   Community .   It   sowed   the   seeds   of   separation   which   led   to   the   partition   of   the
country . The  Act provides that
a) Indian   Muslims   be   allotted   reserved   seats   in   the   Municipal   and   District   Board,   in   the
Provincial Councils and in the Imperial Legislature;
• the   number   of   reserved   seats   be   in   excess   of   their   relative   population   (25   percent   of   the
Indian population);and
• only Muslims should vote for candidates for Muslim seats(separate electorates)
•  The number of the members of the Legislative Council at the center was increased from 16 to 60
• The  number  of   the   members  of   the  Provincial   Legislatives   was  also  increased.   It   was  fixed
as  50  in  the   provinces   of   Bengal,   Madras  and   Bombay ,   and  for  the   rest   of   the   provinces   it was 30.
• Two Indians were nominated to the Council of the Secretary of State for Indian  Affairs.
• The   Governor   General   was   empowered   to   nominate   one   Indian   member   to   his   Executive
Council.
• The members of the Legislative Councils were permitted to discuss the budgets, suggest the
amendments   and   even   to   vote   on   them;   excluding   those   items  that   were   included   as   non vote   items.   They   were   also   entitled   to   ask   supplementary   questions   during   the   legislative
proceedings.